Cummings Study Guide

.......Gallant knights, beautiful princesses and clashing swords are the stuff of many Shakespeare plays, notably his histories. King John, Henry V, Richard II, Richard III, Macbeth—all title characters of Shakespeare plays—ruled in Britain during the age of moats and drawbridges, when chain-mailed warriors vied on foot and horseback for God, country, and glory.
.......This age of kings and castles, or the Feudal Age, was born in Europe in the dawning shadows of the Dark Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed in the late Fifth Century A.D., its former territories in central Europe had to fend for themselves. In time, without the might of the imperial Roman sword to protect them, these territories fell prey to Viking invaders from the north and Muslim invaders from the south.
.......By the 730's, the Muslims had penetrated central Europe through Spain. However, Charles Martel, the ruler of the kingdom of the Franks in northeastern Europe and southwestern Germany, repulsed the Muslims with soldiers granted land in return for military service as horsemen. (Horse soldiers, or cavalry, had the speed and maneuverability to quell the Muslim threat.) This arrangement–granting land in exchange for service–was the founding principle of feudalism.
.......The Franks continued to stand as a protective bulwark under Martel's successors, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. But after Louis I the Pious assumed power in 813, the Franks commenced fighting among themselves over who should succeed to the throne. This internal strife, along with Viking attacks, resulted in the eventual breakup of the Frankish kingdom. In 911, Viking marauders seeded themselves in western France, in present-day Normandy, and took root. By the late 900's, much of Europe (France, England, western Germany, northern Spain, and Sicily) had evolved into a land of local kingdoms in which rulers took refuge behind the walls of castles and leased land to people willing to protect and maintain a kingdom against rival kingdoms or outside invaders. The feudal system of offering land in exchange for service then bloomed to full flower.

How Feudalism Worked

.......The king of a domain granted an expanse of land (fief) to selected men of high standing in return for a pledge of allegiance and military service. These men, who came to be known as great lords (or grands seigneurs) then awarded portions of their land to lesser lords, or vassals, for a similar pledge of loyalty, or fealty, as well as dues and an agreement to fight the lord's enemies. In return, the great lord met the everyday needs of the vassals. Knights, highly trained mounted warriors, were the backbone of the great lord's army. Failure by a great lord or a vassal to live up to a commitment, or warranty, was a felony, a crime punishable by loss of the offender's title, land, and other assets. In severe cases, the offender sometimes lost his life or a limb.

.....What a King or Great Lord Gave ---> Land
.....What a King or Great Lord Received ---> Protection (Military Service)

The Land and Its Workers

.......The estate on which a lord lived was called a manor. Peasants, or serfs, were attached to the land as property. They paid rents and taxes, farmed the land and performed many other servile duties. Sometimes freemen also worked the land. The lord exercised full political and social control over his land.
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What Was a Castle?

.......A castle was a walled fortress of a king or lord. The word castle is derived from the Latin castellum, meaning a fortified place. Generally, a castle was situated on an eminence (a piece of high ground) that had formed naturally or was constructed by laborers. High ground constructed by laborers was called a motte (French for mound); the motte may have been 100 to 200 feet wide and 40 to 80 feet high. The area inside the castle wall was called the bailey. Some castles had several walls, with smaller circles within a larger circle or smaller squares within a larger square.
.......The outer wall of a castle was usually topped with a battlement, a protective barrier with spaced openings through which defenders could shoot arrows at attackers. This wall sometimes was surrounded by a water-filled ditch called a moat, a defensive barrier to prevent the advance of soldiers, horses and war machines. At the main entrance was a drawbridge, which could be raised to prevent entry. Behind the drawbridge was a portcullis [port KUL is], or iron gate, which could be lowered to further secure the castle. Within the castle was a tower, or keep, to which castle residents could withdraw if an enemy breached the portcullis and other defenses. Over the entrance of many castles was a projecting gallery with machicolations [muh CHIK uh LAY shuns], openings in the floor through which defenders could drop hot liquids or stones on attackers. In the living quarters of a castle, the king and his family dined in a great hall on an elevated platform called a dais [DAY is], and they slept in a chamber called a solar.
.......The age of castles ended after the development of gunpowder and artillery fire enabled armies to breach thick castle walls instead of climbing over them.
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Common Occupations
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Actor.Man or boy who performs in a stage play. In Shakespeare's time, males acted both male and female parts in a play.
Acrobat.Entertainer who performs various gymnastic stunts, such as leaps and somersaults. Also called tumbler.
Apothecary.Person who sells drugs and herbs
Armorer.Person who makes armor for soldiers
Astrologer.Person who predicted events by "reading" the stars, the planets, the sun, and the moon
Baker.Person who prepared bread, pastry, and other baked goods
Barber-Surgeon.Person who cuts hair, trims beards, cleans and pulls teeth, amputates limbs, and performs bloodletting
Bard.Poet or storyteller
Barrister.Lawyer who settles estates and handles land disputes, money claims, etc.
Bawd.Keeper of a brothel
Beadle.Minor church official who kept order during services and performed menial tasks; messenger for law courts
Bellmaker.Maker of bells
Blacksmith.Person who makes horseshoes and other objects from iron heated in a forge, then shaped, welded, or cut with various tools
Boatman.Boat operator
Bookbinder.Binder of published manuscripts, journals, diaries, etc.
Bowyer (or Bower, Boyer).Person who makes bows that shoot arrows
Brazier.Maker of brass objects
Brewer.Maker of beer and ale
Butcher.Person who cuts meat
Carpenter.Person who makes and repairs items of wood
Cartographer.Maker of maps
Chancellor.Secretary of a person of high rank
Chandler.Person who makes candles from wax or tallow
Chapman.Operator of a warehouse; trader, peddler, merchant
Chimney Sweep (or Sweeper).Person who cleans soot from chimneys
Clerk.Keeper of accounts and records
Clockmaker.Person who makes and repairs clocks
Clothier.Maker of fine clothes for the well-to-do
Cocker.Person who breeds, trains, and handles fighting roosters, or cocks
Constable.Officer of a court or royal household; castle or fortress warden
Cook.Preparer of food in a household
Cooper.Person who makes barrels
Coppersmith.Person who makes, repairs, and repairs items of copper
Cordwainer.Shoemaker
Crier.Person who walks the streets ringing a bell as he shouted news and proclamations
Currier.Person who prepares tanned leather by soaking, scraping, coloring, or beating it
Cutler.Person who makes, sells, sharpens, and repairs knives
Draper.Dealer in clothes or drapes
Drayer or Drayman.Person with a horse-drawn cart for transporting heavy loads
Dyer.Person who dyes cloth
Embroiderer.Person who uses needlework to make designs on fabric
Factor.Person who makes business transactions for another person; agent
Falconer.Person who breeds and trains hunting falcons and hawks; person who hunts with falcons and hawks
Farrier.Blacksmith who specializes in making horseshoes
Fishwife.Woman who sells fish
Fletcher.Person who makes arrows
Fool.Comic figure with a quick tongue who entertains the king, the queen, and their guests. He is allowed to–and even expected to–criticize anyone at court. In Shakespeare's time, Many fools were dwarfs or cripples, their odd appearance enhancing their appeal and, according to prevailing beliefs, bringing good luck to the court. Actors William Kempe and Richard Armin became London celebrities for their performances as fools in Shakespeare's plays. Armin wrote a book about fools entitled Foole Upon Foole; or Six Sortes of Sottes.
Forester.Person who supervises the woods of a landowner. He sells timber and guards against trespassers.
Fowler.Person who hunts and sells game birds to kitchens
Franklin.Landowner in the 13th and 14th Centuries who was not of noble birth
Fuller.Person who cleanses, thickens, and fulls cloth. To full cloth means to make it fuller by pleating or gathering.
Furbisher.Person who polished or burnished various objects
Gardener.Person skilled at tending gardens
Grocer.Person who sold foods and general household supplies
Glazier.Person who cuts and installs glass for windows
Glover.Maker of gloves
Goldsmith.Person who makes, repairs and sells items of gold
Gravedigger.Person who digs graves
Groom.Male servant in a household; man or boy who tends, feeds, and cleans (with a currycomb) horses in a stable
Haberdasher.Person who sells men's clothing
Hatmaker.Person who makes hats
Hawker.Person who breeds and trains hunting hawks; person who hunts with hawks; falconer
Herbalist.Person who grows, sells, or studies herbs, mainly for use as medical remedies
Herald.Person who announces official declarations, edicts, news, etc.; carrier of messages for the crown; arranger and announcer of jousting matches; overseer of armorial bearings (images on shields)
Hosier.Maker of socks and stockings (hosiery)
Husbandman.Farmer
Innkeeper.Person who owned or hosted an inn
Ironmonger.Dealer in hardware
Jeweler.Person who makes, repairs, and sells items of jewelry
Joiner.Person who makes cabinets, furniture, interior woodwork, doors, window sashes, and other wooden objects
Jester.See Fool
Latten Maker.Maker of thin sheets of brass or an alloy. Latten was used to make church vessels and utensils.
Laundress.Woman who washes clothes
Lawyer.Person trained in the law
Limner.Person who paints or draws portraits
Locksmith.Person who makes keys and installs and repairs locks
Lorimer.Maker of metal parts for harnesses and other riding gear
Maid.Female servant, such as barmaid, chambermaid, milkmaid, or housemaid
Marshal.Person in charge of a castle's or a household's horses and wagons
Mattress Maker.Maker of mattresses
Mercer.Dealer in well-made woven, knitted, and other fabrics; some mercers specialized in a particular cloth, such as silk or wool
Midwife.Woman who delivers babies
Milkmaid.Woman who milks cows; dairymaid; vendor of milk
Minstrel.Traveling musician who sang or recited to the accompaniment of an instrument
Moneylender.Person who lends money at interest
Monger.Roving merchant who sells goods from a cart or another portable device. Examples: fishmonger, ironmonger
Ostler.Operator of an inn that rents rooms and stable space and serves food and drink
Painter.Artist who paints portraits, landscapes, etc.
Peddler.Itinerant seller of merchandise
Pewterer.Person who makes and repairs items of pewter
Physician.Medical doctor
Playwright.Person who writes plays
Porter.Doorkeeper, gatekeeper
Poulterer.Dealer in poultry and other game
Printer.Person who sets type in a form for printing; owner of printing business
Purser.Ship officer who keeps financial accounts and secures valuables for passengers
Reeve.Chief officer of a town or manor
Roper.Maker of ropes
Salter.Person who sells salt or salts meat, fish, and other food
Sawyer.Person who saws wood for construction
Schoolmaster.Teacher of children
Scribe.Person who copies manuscripts by hand and prepares handwritten documents
Sculptor.Person who fashions artistic objects from stone, clay, metal, and other media
Seamstress.Woman who sews for a living
Searcher.Person who identifies victims of plague and quarantines their houses
Servant.Person who carries out routine household chores
Shepherd.Person who herds and watches over sheep
Salter.Person who deals in salt or salts foods such as meat and fish
Sheriff.Important civil officer of a shire (county)
Shipwright.Carpenter who builds and repairs ships
Shoemaker.Person who makes and repairs shoes; cordwainer
Sieve Maker.Maker of sieves (strainers or sifters)
Silversmith.Person who makes, repairs, and sells items of silver
Slater.Person who lays slate on roofs
Soapmaker.Person who makes soap
Spoonmaker.Maker of spoons
Spurrier.Maker of spurs
Stapler.Person who sorts wool according to its staple (the length, texture, and quality of its fibers); buyer and seller of wool, linen, and silk
Stationer.Publisher of books. Stationers belonged to a guild (the Worshipful Company of Stationers) which the government established and supervised in order to guard against the publication of subversive books or books unduly critical of the Crown. When one stationer acquired the rights to publish copies of a book, the other members were bound to respect this "copy right," preparing the way for modern copyright laws.
Stonecutter.Person who cuts, shapes, and carves stone; stonemason
Tailor.Person who makes clothing
Tanner.Person turns hides into leather by soaking it in tannin, a chemical that prevents the skin from decaying
Tapster.Bartender
Taverner.Person who maintains a tavern
Thatcher.Person who thatches (covers roofs with straw or other plant material)
Tinker.Traveling handyman who repairs household items, such as pots and pans; person who can repair almost anything; jack-of-all trades
Trader.Businessman involved in importing and exporting various supplies and merchandise
Tranter.Peddler who sells his wares from a horse-drawn cart
Tumbler.Entertainer who performs handsprings, somersaults, and other feats requiring physical agility
Turner.Person who shapes wooden objects, such as table legs, on a lathe (a machine that holds and rotates wood while it is pressed against an abrasive surface)
Verger.Official who bears the symbol of authority, such as a rod or staff, of a bishop or dean in a procession
Vintner.Person who makes and sells wine
Warrener.Person who breeds or catches rabbits
Weaver.Person who makes cloth
Wheelwright.Person who makes and repairs wagon, cart, and carriage wheels
Wiredrawer.Person who draws metal into wire
Woodcarver.Person who carves wood to make it decorative
Page.Boy servant; boy attending a knight or a boy in training to become a knight
Puppeteer.Person who stages puppet shows
Saddler.Maker of saddles and bridles
Skinner.Person who removes the skins of animals and prepares them for sale; seller of hides
Tiler.Person who installs roof tiles
Washerwoman.Woman who washes clothes